Book production

The production of manuscripts in the Middle Ages involved several steps, executed by various craftsmen. In the Hamburg Bible, a German Bible manuscript of the 13th century, the process is described in a unique series of illuminations. First, the parchment maker placed the animal skin in water and lime to loosen the hairs, which were then scraped off. The skin was then stretched on a wooden frame, scraped with a crescent-shaped knife, tightened, and left to dry. Finally, it was treated, for example, with chalk or lime and smoothed with pumice stone. The parchment was then cut into rectangular sheets, which would become the pages of the manuscript. The pages had to be laid out carefully to ensure sufficient room for all the elements, and guiding lines were created for the text. The quill pen was usually made from a goose wing feather and cut with a sharp penknife. The writing desk was tilted for better comfort and overview, while the angle of the pen prevented the ink from flowing out too quickly. The scribe used black ink. Afterwards, a rubricator added rubrics – headings, running titles, and keywords – in red ink.

The word “rubric” is derived from ruber, the Latin word for red. Tables of contents were often added, either at the beginning of a text or at the beginning of individual paragraphs. Drop caps were often made at the very beginning of new sections. These could include images – illuminations. The leaves of a book were folded either once, into folios of four pages, or even several times into more pages. These were put together in groups called folds and sewn together by a bookbinder. For protection, the manuscript was finally covered with leather-bound wooden boards—the binder. The word “book” comes from the fact that the boards were often made of beech (Norwegian: bøk) wood. The Latin word "codex" originally also means wood. Since parchment was sensitive to temperature and humidity fluctuations, the covers were kept closed with buckles or locks to keep the manuscript under pressure when it is not in use.